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Expert Opinion
Many researchers and authors have defined the concept of motivation. It has been defined as:
- The psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995)
- A predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995)
- An internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994)
- The will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993).
For this Management Brief, motivation is defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organisational goals.
The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through others. A committed and motivated workforce is critical to maximising an organisation's full potential. Highly motivated employees frequently seek to work beyond the bounds of their specific work roles and functions in order to not only improve themselves, but also to achieve the objectives of the organisation. Motivated employees can be considered vital to organisational survival in our rapidly changing workplaces and work world - they help organisations survive because they are more productive.
Individuals responsible for managing staff have a variety of key responsibilities. Included in these is the ability to inspire and motivate their staff, encourage these people to strive for excellence, to promote productivity, and to ensure the continuation of work outputs even during difficult times. Motivating others can be a very challenging task.
To be effective in this task, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager is responsible for, motivating employees can be the most complex. David Frederick (2001), a senior lecturer at London Guildhall University's Department of Management and Professional Development notes "Motivation is a topic that generates a lot of debate. Irrespective of the business sector, motivation will always be an issue to be addressed by management". He further states "It is essential for managers to understand the concept of motivation. An understanding of motivation may contribute to a more cooperative working environment and an increase in employee productivity".
Frederick writes that motivation is a personal phenomenon, not a homogenous commodity held by all individuals, and that everyone has different motivators driving their action.
Although there are many theories of motivation, three of the most commonly known ones, related to workplace motivation are those by Abraham Maslow, Frederick Herzberg, and Douglas McGregor.
Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970) Maslows Heirachy of Needs:
In the first half of this century, sociologist Abraham Maslow proposed that all humans have universal needs, and those needs could be categorised and predicted. Regarded as the first person to develop a theory of motivation, Maslow sees motivation it terms of 5 differing levels of human needs with those at lower levels needing to be met prior to those at higher levels. This model of motivation has gained a lot of attention, but not complete acceptance. This theory may be applicable to modern management as follows:
- Physiological needs - these are the needs of personal survival and include the needs we have for food, oxygen, water, to be active, to rest, to sleep, to avoid pain, to have accommodation and shelter etc. Work can provide individuals with the ability to earn an income in order to pay for these basic needs of survival.
- Safety and security needs - When the physiological needs are largely taken care of, this second layer of needs comes into play. Individuals become increasingly interested in finding safe circumstances, stability, and protection. There might develop a need for structure, for order and limits, and ways of preventing or reducing fears and anxieties. Such needs manifest themselves in the form of our urges to have a home in a safe neighbourhood, job security, reliable transport, savings in a bank account, a good retirement plan, health insurance, or anything that contributes to the orderliness and predictability of life. Again, work provides individuals with the ability to earn to acquire such things. In addition a feeling of safety may be gained from the security that employment may bring.
- Love and belonging needs - When physiological and safety needs are predominantly met an individual begins to seek affiliation with others. This includes the need for friends, a marriage partner, children, affectionate relationships and a sense of community. The meeting of these needs is expressed in our desires to marry, have a family, and be a part of a community or group, It is also a part of what we look for in a career - work can provide opportunities for individuals to gain a sense of belonging and identity through their involvement in organisations, work teams and groups.
- Self-esteem needs - When the three preceeding groups of needs are met individuals begin to look to meeting needs for self-esteem such as the need for the respect of others, status, fame, recognition, attention, appreciation, dignity, confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom. Esteem needs are often satisfied by recognition from peers and mentors, such as employers. This may include a raise in pay, a bonus, a certificate of completion or a degree from an educational institution. It may also include many other rewards for effort, but such feelings must be confirmed by recognition of those efforts. The work that an individual carries out, the type of organisation they work for and even their job title may provide personal status or self-respect.
- Self-actualisation needs - These are needs that involve the desire to fulfill our potential and to "be all that we can be". These needs involve becoming the most complete, 'fullest' person that you can be. An individual may achieve this higher level need from the fulfilment of his/her career goals or ambitions, or from seeing completion of work tasks that are important to him/her.
Maslows Heirachy of Needs is expressed graphically as:
Source: Data for diagram drawn from A. H. Maslow, 'A Theory of Human Motivation', Psychological Review, 50 (July 1943): 370-396.
Frederick Herzberg - Two Factor Theory
Fredrick Herzburg developed another popular theory of motivation called the Two-factor Theory (or Motivator-Hygiene Theory) to explain the motivations of workers. Herzberg and his associates began their research into motivation during the 1950's, examining the models and assumptions of Maslow and others, and in 1959 he published a book entitled 'The Motivation'. The basic hypotheses of this theory are that there are two types of motivators, one type which results in satisfaction with the job, and the other which merely prevents dissatisfaction. The two types are quite separate and distinct from one another. Factors that result in job satisfaction are termed 'motivators' and those that simply prevent dissatisfaction are termed 'hygienes'.
The factors that lead to job satisfaction (the motivators - sometimes called motivational factors) are:
- Advancement and promotions
A way to recognize motivational factors is by considering that they are factors where 'it's no big deal if they are not there but it's a big deal if they are'.
The factors which may prevent dissatisfaction (the hygienes - sometimes called maintenance factors) are:
- Company policy and administration
A way to recognise hygiene factors is by considering whether they are factors whereby 'it's no big deal if they are there, but it's a big deal if they are not'.
Motivators are those things that allow for psychological growth and development on the job. They are closely related to Maslow's concept of 'self-actualisation', involving a challenge, an opportunity to extend oneself to the fullest, to taste the pleasure of accomplishment, and to be recognised as having done something worthwhile.
Hygienes, if applied effectively, can at best prevent dissatisfaction and if applied poorly, they can result in negative feelings about the job. Hygienes are simply factors that describe the 'conditions of work' rather than the work itself. Herberg's point is that if you want to motivate people, you have to be concerned with the 'job itself' and not simply with the surroundings. As such, he contends that we should focus our attention on the individuals in jobs, not on the things that we surround them with. He maintains that we tend to think that growth and development will occur if we provide good working conditions, status, security, and administration, whereas in fact what stimulates growth (and motivation to grow and develop) are opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility and advancement. He felt that a key method for achieving these was 'job enrichment' and 'vertical job loading' whereby jobs are redesigned to make them more interesting and employees are given increased authority and challenge within their jobs (together with more feedback).
Douglas McGregor - Theory X and Y
In 1960 McGregor published his book 'The Human Side of Enterprise' which discussed his theories on behaviour of individuals at work. He formulated two models that are still taught, discussed, and debated today - Theory X and Theory Y. McGregor's assumptions underpinned why he felt managers took the approaches they did towards employees.
A manager holding Theory X assumptions would be inclined to believe that that:
- People inherently dislike work
- People must be coerced or controlled to do work to achieve objectives
- People prefer to be directed
A manager holding Theory Y assumptions would be inclined to believe that:
- People view work as being as natural as play and rest
- People will exercise self-direction and control towards achieving objectives they are committed to
- People learn to accept and seek responsibility
- Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems and these abilities are widely distributed in the work force
- In modern organisations, the intellectual potential of the average person are only partially utilised.
Managers holding this view of work and their employees would most likely demonstrate trust in their employees, use explanations and joint problem-solving methods, give staff room to interpret and implement organisational objectives for themselves, act as a facilitator, provide opportunities for growth and job enrichment, allow staff to use their creative abilities and remove restrictions to doing a good job.
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